Care Work and Living Arrangements
Caring for children and aging or disabled relatives affects the financial resources and time availability for many families. Among adults with children under age 13, just less than one-fourth used paid childcare, although 46 percent used some form of unpaid childcare from someone other than the child's parent.
Women frequently bear additional responsibilities for providing care work. Indeed, women were significantly more likely than men to be the primary caregiver for their own children and provide unpaid care for sick or aging adults—which contributed to their lower rates of work for pay.
Living Arrangements
Households and living arrangements come in various forms. Most frequently, people lived with a spouse, partner, or children under age 18 (table 9). Thirteen percent of people lived alone, and 48 percent of adults lived in households with a spouse or partner and/or children under the age of 18 and no one else. Yet, 18 percent of adults lived with their adult children (aged 18 or older), and 15 percent lived with their parents.
Table 9. Other people living in the household
| Relationship | Percent |
|---|---|
| Spouse or partner | 64 |
| Children under age 18 | 25 |
| Adult children | 18 |
| Parents | 15 |
| Brothers or sisters | 7 |
| Other relatives | 5 |
| Other non-relatives | 5 |
| Lives with someone else | 87 |
Note: Among all adults. Respondents could select multiple answers.
Thirty-two percent of adults lived in households with multiple adult generations, meaning they either lived with their parents or their adult children (age 18 or older). One percent of adults simultaneously lived with their parent and an adult child, and an additional 2 percent simultaneously lived with a parent and a child under age 18.21
Living arrangements varied by the age of adults in the households. Among all age groups, adults age 60 and older were the most likely to live alone. Adults ages 30 to 44 were the most likely to live with only their spouse or partner and/or children under age 18. Finally, young adults under age 45 were more likely to simultaneously live with their parents and their own children under the age of 18 than were adults age 45 or older. These living arrangements may be due to financial reasons, ease of providing child or elder care, or other reasons.
Childcare
Most parents in the U.S. did not use paid childcare in 2024. At the time of the survey, 24 percent of parents living with children under age 13 ("parents of younger children") reported using paid childcare in the past week. Reflecting the greater need for childcare among parents with non-school-age children, a higher 33 percent of parents living with their children under age six used paid childcare in the past week. Use of paid childcare varied by family income, with higher-income parents being more likely to use paid childcare, and to use it more intensively. For example, among parents of younger children, those with a higher income were over five times as likely as those with a lower income to use 20 or more hours of paid childcare per week (table 10).
Table 10. Hours of paid childcare used in the past week (by family income)
Percent
| Family Income | 1-19 hours | 20 or more hours | Any paid childcare |
|---|---|---|---|
| Less than $50,000 | 7 | 4 | 12 |
| $50,000–$99,999 | 8 | 8 | 16 |
| $100,000 or more | 12 | 23 | 35 |
Note: Among adults living with their own children under age 13.
Childcare costs made up a substantial share of the family budget for parents using paid childcare (figure 11). The median weekly amount that parents paid for childcare was $240, or approximately $960 per month. Among those who used paid childcare for 20 or more hours each week, the median monthly cost was $1,400. For perspective, just over half of parents who used paid childcare spent at least 50 percent as much on childcare as on housing, most people's single largest monthly expense.
Figure 11. Median monthly childcare and housing payment (by homeownership status and hours of childcare used)
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Note: Among adults living with their own children under age 13 who report a monthly childcare and housing cost. Key identifies bars in order from top to bottom.
Parents were more likely to use unpaid childcare than they were to pay for childcare. Among those with children under age 13, 46 percent used some form of unpaid childcare. Among those with children under age six, 53 percent did so. Most parents who used unpaid childcare did not use it very often. Fifty-eight percent of those who used unpaid childcare relied on it for less than 10 hours per week.
Unpaid childcare was typically provided by a relative of the child—generally a grandparent (table 11). Among those who said that a grandparent provided unpaid childcare, 17 percent said the grandparent lives in their house with them.
Table 11. Providers of unpaid childcare
| Provider | Percent |
|---|---|
| Child's grandparents | 30 |
| Child's sibling | 9 |
| Another relative other than the parents | 11 |
| A nonrelative such as a friend or neighbor | 6 |
| Headstart or another preschool that you don't pay for | 3 |
| Other unpaid childcare | 3 |
| Any unpaid childcare | 46 |
Note: Among adults living with their own children under the age of 13. Respondents could select multiple answers.
Managing care for children often involves tradeoffs between time and cost that can affect people's work decisions. Single parents need childcare when they are working just as much as dual-career couples, but they are less likely to pay for it, likely reflecting their more limited financial resources.22 Among both single-parent families and two-working-parent families, approximately two in three used some form of childcare. As seen in figure 12, 35 percent of families with two working parents of younger children used paid childcare. This is significantly more than any other group. This group could turn to paid childcare more than other groups because their time availability is low, but their income is typically higher than other groups. On the other hand, income and time may both be limited for single parents who work full time. Forty-nine percent of single working parents used unpaid childcare as their only form of childcare—the highest amount of any group.
Two-parent families may have one spouse stay home to take care of children and avoid the expense of paid childcare. In these two-parent families where one parent is not working, over half were not using any form of paid or unpaid childcare. Additionally, mothers made up 78 percent of stay-at-home parents in these two-parent families where one parent was not working.
Figure 12. Forms of childcare used (by employment status)
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Note: Among adults living with their own children under age 13. Key identifies bars in order from left to right.
Parental childcare responsibilities frequently fall disproportionately to mothers. Among adults living with their spouse or partner and their younger children, 56 percent of mothers said they are usually the primary caretaker when their children are home, compared with 13 percent of fathers.23 Even when both parents worked full time, 37 percent of mothers said they are usually the primary caregiver, compared with 11 percent of fathers.24
These greater care work responsibilities contribute to women's lower employment rates relative to men. Among parents living with their children under age 13, 36 percent of women were not working for pay, compared with 17 percent of men. Additionally, among these non-working parents of younger children, women were more likely to say that childcare responsibilities contributed to that choice. Forty-two percent of mothers of younger children who were not working said that this was at least in part due to childcare, more than double the 18 percent of non-working fathers who attributed the choice to childcare.
Some adults worked part time because of childcare responsibilities but did not leave the labor market completely. Among parents who live with their children under age 13, 18 percent of women worked part time, compared with 5 percent of men. Among parents of younger children who worked part time, 45 percent say childcare responsibilities contributed to that choice.
Caring for Other Adults
Another type of unpaid care work is caring for an aging parent, spouse, partner, or adult child (age 18 or older) who requires assistance. Seventeen percent of adults regularly provided unpaid care for an adult relative or friend needing assistance because of aging, disability, or illness. Most frequently this care was provided to a parent or a spouse's or partner's parent (figure 13).
Figure 13. Relationship to those you provide unpaid care for because of aging, disability, or illness
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Note: Among adults who provided unpaid care for an adult because of aging, disability, or illness.
Unpaid caregiving responsibilities varied by demographic characteristics. Women were more likely to provide unpaid care to other adults than men (table 12). Black, Hispanic, and Asian adults were more likely to provide unpaid care than White adults. Additionally, adults ages 45 to 59 were the most likely age group to provide unpaid care, with 23 percent of adults in this age range doing so.
Table 12. Provides unpaid care to adults because of aging, disability, or illness (by demographic characteristics)
| Characteristic | Percent |
|---|---|
| Age | |
| 18–29 | 14 |
| 30–44 | 15 |
| 45–59 | 23 |
| 60+ | 17 |
| Race/ethnicity | |
| White | 15 |
| Black | 19 |
| Hispanic | 20 |
| Asian | 19 |
| Male/female | |
| Male | 16 |
| Female | 18 |
| Overall | 17 |
Note: Among all adults.
Most caregivers provided care at least weekly, including the vast majority of those caring for their spouse or partner. Thirty-four percent of all individuals who provided care to another adult provided care daily, and 61 percent provided care at least weekly. Providing care for a disabled adult child frequently has daily care responsibilities, as 43 percent of those who provided care for an adult child did so daily. Among those providing care to a spouse or partner, 64 percent did so daily (figure 14).
Figure 14. Frequency of unpaid care (by recipient)
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Note: Among adults who provided unpaid care for an adult because of aging, disability, or illness. Key identifies bars in order from left to right.
Like childcare, providing regular care for other adults can affect one's ability to do other work for pay. Among prime-age adults, one-third who were caring for another adult did not have a paid job, compared with one-fourth of those who did not have these caretaking responsibilities. Disruptions to one's ability to do other work was even greater among those with daily caretaking responsibilities—44 percent did not work for pay.
Living arrangements were related to caregiving needs. Among those who provided unpaid care for an adult because of aging, disability, or illness, 47 percent lived in a multigenerational household (living with either parents or adult children). This compares with 29 percent of individuals not providing unpaid care who lived in a multigenerational household.
Care burdens were amplified for those who both have younger children and provide unpaid care for an adult. These responsibilities necessitated managing different issues and tasks simultaneously. One in three adults either had children under the age of 13, provided unpaid care for an adult, or both.25 Two percent of adults simultaneously had children under the age of 13 and provided care for an adult because of aging, disability, or illness.
References
21. The actual share of adults living in three-generation households is higher than this percentage. This is because respondents were not asked the ages of everyone they live with, so individuals in the youngest and oldest generation in three-generation households were unable to be identified. Return to text
22. The median income of single parents of younger children who worked was between $35,000 and $39,999 per year. In comparison, dual-earning parents of younger children who both worked had a median income of between $100,000 and $149,999 per year. Return to text
23. Respondents were asked about family caregiving responsibility distributions, and whether they are the primary caretaker, their spouse is the primary caretaker, or if caregiving responsibilities are equally distributed. Return to text
24. This double burden of working for pay outside of the home and disproportionately caring for children once home is also known as the second shift. See Arlie Hochschild and Anne Machung, The Second Shift: Working Parents and the Revolution at Home (New York: Penguin Random House, 2012). Return to text
25. Individuals who provide care for their older parents and have young children or support their adult children are known as those in the Sandwich Generation. See Kim Parker and Eileen Patten, The Sandwich Generation: Rising Financial Burdens for Middle-Aged Americans (Washington: Pew Research Center, January 2013), https://www.pewresearch.org/social-trends/2013/01/30/the-sandwich-generation/. Return to text